What is the result of the decision of multiple actors interacting in a system?

Guidelines providing a minimum and a maximum that allow for a judge to select a sentence within that range is called what?

In May 1983, what state voted to apply sentencing guidelines statewide and which courts do these guidelines apply to?

Theorists Ulmer (2000) and Kramer and Ulmer (1996) argue that legal factors such as criminal history and crime severity are used informally by judges as a way of doing what?

According to Bushway & Piehl, there are six studies of judicial departures in sentencing outcomes in guideline jurisdictions. What do five of these studies show?